The regularity and richness of the annual
Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the
east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great
civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series of
dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native
dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by
the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who introduced
Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who ruled for the
next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control
about 1250 and continued to govern after the conquest of Egypt by the
Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in
1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub, but also fell
heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized
control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the
Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK
in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the
British-backed monarchy in 1952. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in
1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place
of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly
growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land,
and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress
society. The government has struggled to meet the demands of Egypt's
growing population through economic reform and massive investment in
communications and physical infrastructure. Egyptian youth and
opposition groups, inspired by events in Tunisia leading to overthrow of
the government there, organized a "Day of Rage" campaign on 25 January
2011 (Police Day) to include non-violent demonstrations, marches, and
labor strikes in Cairo and other cities throughout Egypt. Protester
grievances focused on police brutality, state emergency laws, lack of
free speech and elections, high unemployment, rising food prices,
inflation, and low minimum wages. Within several days of the onset of
protests, President MUBARAK addressed the nation pledging the formation
of a new government, and in a second address he offered additional
concessions, which failed to assuage protesters and resulted in an
escalation of the number and intensity of demonstrations and clashes
with police. On 11 February MUBARAK resigned and national leadership was
assumed by a Supreme Council of Armed Forces (SCAF). The SCAF dissolved
the Egyptian parliament, suspended the nation's constitution, and
formed a committee to recommend constitutional changes to facilitate a
political transition through democratic elections. Following some
delays, elections for a new parliament took place between November 2011
and January 2012. Presidential elections held in May and June witnessed
the victory of Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohammed MURSI over former
Prime Minister Ahmed SHAFIQ.
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